譫妄是一種急性、波動性的大腦機(jī)能障礙的狀態(tài),,其特征是意識改變,,注意力集中、維持或轉(zhuǎn)移能力降低,,可導(dǎo)致認(rèn)知或感知障礙,,幻覺的出現(xiàn)以及睡眠-覺醒障礙,無法用預(yù)先存在,、已發(fā)生或發(fā)展中的疾病更好地解釋[1,2,3],。譫妄可能發(fā)生在各個年齡段,在遺傳和生理角度認(rèn)為,,老年個體相較于年輕個體,,更容易發(fā)生譫妄,嬰幼兒期和兒童期個體相較于成年早,、中期個體,,對于譫妄的易感性更高[4]。 成人譫妄的研究已經(jīng)相對成熟,,危險因素明確[5,6,7,8],,成人ICU意識模糊評估工具(the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit,CAM-ICU)被廣泛認(rèn)可并用于臨床[9,10,11,12],,甚至針對癌癥,、ICU等亞科領(lǐng)域分別具有指導(dǎo)指南[13,14,15,16],然而兒科領(lǐng)域公認(rèn)的指南較少,。由于在精神障礙診斷與統(tǒng)計手冊(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders,,DSM)和國際疾病分類標(biāo)準(zhǔn)(International Classification of Diseases,,ICD)中譫妄的診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)并無不同年齡段的差別,同時隨著兒科領(lǐng)域越來越多臨床研究的報道,,基于以上研究及證據(jù),,能夠使我們對于兒童譫妄的防治有更進(jìn)一步的了解。 1 兒童譫妄流行病學(xué) 兒童譫妄,,尤其是PICU譫妄具有較高的發(fā)生率,從已發(fā)表的文獻(xiàn)中可以得知,,兒童譫妄的發(fā)生率波動在4%~57%[17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24],。這是因為不同研究中涉及的目標(biāo)人群疾病類型、年齡段,、診斷評估的工具和流程規(guī)范不盡相同,。已報道的兒童譫妄發(fā)生率最高為57%[24],研究人群為兒童心臟重癥監(jiān)護(hù)室(pediatric cardiac intensive care unit,,PCICU)內(nèi)患兒,。在一項25家多中心大樣本的臨床研究中,曾報道兒童譫妄發(fā)生率為25%[25],,我國首個兒童譫妄臨床研究結(jié)果顯示發(fā)生率為24.4%[26],。目前認(rèn)為兒童譫妄具有3種臨床亞型,分別是躁動型譫妄,、安靜型譫妄以及混合型譫妄,。躁動型譫妄多表現(xiàn)為躁動、煩躁,、高度警惕和易激惹的狀態(tài),,相反,安靜型譫妄則表現(xiàn)為嗜睡,、注意力不集中和反應(yīng)遲緩,。混合型表現(xiàn)則波動于兩者之間[27],。其中安靜型譫妄容易被誤診為鎮(zhèn)靜過度從而被忽視,,有文獻(xiàn)報道此型譫妄可能預(yù)示較差的臨床結(jié)局[28]。然而在許多情況下,,兒童譫妄的發(fā)生常被延遲發(fā)現(xiàn)甚至未被臨床醫(yī)護(hù)人員關(guān)注,。 2 兒童譫妄危險因素 兒童譫妄的發(fā)生受多種因素影響,具體的發(fā)生機(jī)制尚不明確,,但從成人研究的報道可以了解到,,譫妄的發(fā)生可能與腦失衡導(dǎo)致多巴胺能相對過剩和膽堿能遞質(zhì)的缺乏有關(guān),或是皮質(zhì)醇異常,、應(yīng)激反應(yīng),、炎癥以及大腦氧化代謝的紊亂相關(guān)[29,30],。兒童譫妄已知危險因素包括兒童入院前基線水平:男童,年齡較小,,存在認(rèn)知功能障礙,、原發(fā)疾病為急性、感染性疾病或者初步診斷為癲癇持續(xù)狀態(tài),,術(shù)后,;入院后水平:機(jī)械通氣,器官損害的嚴(yán)重程度,,約束的天數(shù),,抗膽堿能藥物、苯二氮類藥物(中高度劑量)的使用[3,24,31,32,33,34,35],,其中有文獻(xiàn)報道苯二氮卓類藥物的使用隨著劑量的增加,,譫妄發(fā)生的機(jī)率和天數(shù)增加[33]。有研究報道指出急性腎損傷是成人ICU譫妄發(fā)生的危險因素,,可能的機(jī)制與藥物代謝障礙,、神經(jīng)毒素清除以及全身炎癥有關(guān)[36]。兒童臨床研究人群為心臟術(shù)后的患兒譫妄的發(fā)生率高于其他類型疾病[24],,可能由于體外循環(huán)引起全身內(nèi)皮激活以及炎癥反應(yīng),,無搏動性給氧,容易發(fā)生血栓,,可能導(dǎo)致腦損傷和炎癥的發(fā)生[37,38],,這些臨床暴露的因素,需要在未來兒童譫妄的研究中進(jìn)一步討論,。 3 診斷與評估 兒童譫妄是由兒科精神科醫(yī)生進(jìn)行診斷,,金標(biāo)準(zhǔn)即為精神障礙診斷與統(tǒng)計手冊(DSM),目前更新至第五版[27],。PICU醫(yī)生多通過咨詢兒科精神科醫(yī)生以及臨床經(jīng)驗進(jìn)行鑒別,,因此極少醫(yī)生會對譫妄進(jìn)行診斷,兒童譫妄癥狀的多變以及臨床溝通的障礙更容易使其被誤診和漏診,。隨著兒科臨床醫(yī)生意識到成人ICU中譫妄帶來的重大影響,,改變譫妄識別的策略被提出,逐漸有兒童譫妄的床旁評估工具出現(xiàn)[39],,由于兒童生長發(fā)育的特殊性,,目前存在多種床旁評估工具[40,41,42,43,44,45]。 兒童麻醉蘇醒期譫妄量表(the Pediatric Anesthesia Emergence Delirium Scale,,PAED)最早是由Sikich和Lerman[40]于2004年提出,,用于評價兒童麻醉后是否發(fā)生蘇醒期譫妄研制的一種行為觀察量表,共分為5個條目,,每個條目分0~4分五個級別,,得分一旦不小于8分,,便可懷疑為兒童譫妄,適用于19個月至6歲間的術(shù)后蘇醒期的兒童,。兒科ICU譫妄診斷的意識狀態(tài)評估法(the Pediatric-Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit,,pCAM-ICU)最早由Smith等[41]于2011年提出使用,是由成人ICU譫妄評估量表CAM-ICU根據(jù)兒科患者特點改進(jìn)而來,,共分為4個條目,,條目1和2再加上條目3或4顯示為陽性結(jié)果,便可診斷兒童譫妄,,要求評估人員接受一定的精神科專業(yè)知識的培訓(xùn)且僅適用于5歲以上兒童(不包括本身患有發(fā)育或精神方面疾病兒童),,需要兒童的配合??的螤杻和d妄評估量表(the Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium scale,CAPD)是由Sliver等[42]于2012年在PAED的基礎(chǔ)上進(jìn)行一定程度的修改而制定的量表,,增加了對患兒活動度和反應(yīng)性評估條目,,可以對譫妄的不同亞型進(jìn)行辨別,每個條目仍為0~4分,,五個級別,,當(dāng)?shù)梅譃?~9分時就要注意潛在的譫妄并且進(jìn)行復(fù)評;當(dāng)?shù)梅植恍∮?0分時,,則可判定為發(fā)生譫妄,。學(xué)齡前兒童ICU譫妄診斷的意識狀態(tài)評估法(the PreSchool Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU,psCAM-ICU)是基于CAM-ICU和pCAM-ICU的基礎(chǔ)上改進(jìn)而來的[43],,適用年齡≤5歲,。索菲亞兒童戒斷-譫妄觀察量表(the Sophia Observation withdrawal Symptoms-Paediatric Delirium,SOS-PD)是由Ista等[44]及其團(tuán)隊于2016年在索菲亞兒童戒斷癥狀觀察表(the Sophia Observation withdrawal Symptoms,,SOS)的基礎(chǔ)上增加了對兒童譫妄觀察條目,,以便能早期篩查譫妄和(或)戒斷癥狀,共有22個行為觀察條目,,17個條目與兒童譫妄癥狀有關(guān),,其中有10個條目與SOS量表相同,觀察到發(fā)生即進(jìn)行勾選,,附加條目為是否父母主觀認(rèn)為患兒的認(rèn)知和行為明顯不同于患病前或入院前,,當(dāng)附加條目選項為'是'和(或)兒童譫妄觀察條目得分≥4分或患兒出現(xiàn)幻覺即認(rèn)定發(fā)生譫妄。 歐洲兒科和新生兒重癥監(jiān)護(hù)學(xué)會在2016年發(fā)布了共識指南,,推薦使用CAPD量表作為兒科譫妄的評估工具[2],,漢化版CAPD量表[26]具有較好的臨床信效度,于2019年授權(quán)發(fā)表,。 4 預(yù)防及治療 目前沒有任何干預(yù)措施或一組干預(yù)措施被大樣本證明能夠有效地預(yù)防和(或)治療兒童譫妄[46,47]?,F(xiàn)有方案多是基于專家共識,,觀察性研究和少量的臨床對照試驗。 4.1 藥物預(yù)防及治療 抗精神病藥物在部分成人及兒童病例的回顧性文獻(xiàn)中提及有效,,能夠緩解譫妄的癥狀[48,49,50],,但該類藥物說明中不包括用于兒童譫妄的治療,不良反應(yīng)可能延長QTc和增加錐體外系運(yùn)動障礙的風(fēng)險[51],。在成人ICU譫妄患者中,,不具有治療作用[52]。2018年JAMA雜志報道了預(yù)防性應(yīng)用氟哌啶醇對重癥患者死亡風(fēng)險的影響,,該隨機(jī)對照的臨床研究納入了荷蘭21家ICU的患者,,將入住ICU≥24 h尚無譫妄的重癥患者,分為3組(氟哌啶醇1 mg組,、氟哌啶醇2 mg組以及安慰劑組)接受氟哌啶醇預(yù)防性治療,,每天3次,最終結(jié)果認(rèn)為預(yù)防性應(yīng)用氟哌啶醇無法改善譫妄高風(fēng)險患者的生存時間,、譫妄發(fā)生率以及次要結(jié)局指標(biāo),,不具有臨床優(yōu)勢[53]。 右美托咪啶對譫妄的治療和預(yù)防,,系統(tǒng)評價報道具有一定的效果[54,55,56],。Skrobik等[57]進(jìn)行的一項成人隨機(jī)雙盲安慰劑對照試驗,通過夜間給予靜脈泵入0.2 mg/(kg·h)右美托咪定,,結(jié)果顯示ICU重癥患者夜間小劑量應(yīng)用右美托咪定能夠預(yù)防患者譫妄的發(fā)生,。 褪黑素是由松果體產(chǎn)生的,具有調(diào)節(jié)晝夜節(jié)律,,以及作為抗氧化劑和抗炎劑的作用[58,59],。有一項成人研究直接評估了褪黑素激動劑對譫妄的影響,在這項研究中,,譫妄的發(fā)生率明顯降低[60],。Nishikimi等[61]進(jìn)行的一項單中心隨機(jī)三盲對照試驗,結(jié)果顯示雷美替胺(褪黑素)可以縮短住ICU的時間,,同時減少重癥患者譫妄發(fā)生率和縮短譫妄時間,,與未接受干預(yù)或配備耳塞和眼罩的患者相比,給予褪黑素的受試者有更長的總睡眠時間,,增加快速動眼期,,更短的睡眠起始潛伏期,以及主觀上更好的睡眠,。 昂丹司瓊(Ondansetron),,一種止吐劑,在兒童譫妄研究中發(fā)現(xiàn)能夠降低兒童譫妄的發(fā)生率[24],與成人術(shù)后患者中服用該藥能夠有效地減輕譫妄癥狀的效果一致[62,63],。 成人譫妄研究證據(jù)不建議在急性期,、重癥監(jiān)護(hù)、心臟手術(shù)或其他術(shù)后護(hù)理等高危環(huán)境中使用藥物來預(yù)防譫妄[64,65],。 4.2 非藥物預(yù)防及治療 通過對可改變的危險因素以及非藥物性干預(yù)的管理,,能夠降低譫妄的發(fā)生率[46,47]。推薦患兒入PICU后,,以非藥物預(yù)防為中心,,旨在優(yōu)化PICU環(huán)境,維持生理睡眠-覺醒周期,,進(jìn)行疼痛的管理,,盡可能家庭人員參與其中。 在PICU內(nèi)許多因素可能導(dǎo)致睡眠障礙[66],,夜間明亮的燈光和較高的噪音水平,,都可能導(dǎo)致ICU患兒出現(xiàn)睡眠紊亂,從而誘發(fā)或加劇譫妄的發(fā)生[67],。減少夜間的光線,、噪音干擾,確保夜間關(guān)燈,、白天亮燈(盡可能多的暴露在日光下),使用眼罩,、耳塞[68,69]能夠促進(jìn)正常的晝夜節(jié)律,;在病床放置患兒喜歡的毛絨玩具或毯子等,使其不感到陌生,、恐懼等消極情緒[70],,集中護(hù)理操作時間,盡可能減少身體約束,。 早期舒適鎮(zhèn)痛,,最小化鎮(zhèn)靜[71],鎮(zhèn)靜先鎮(zhèn)痛,,最大限度地減少鎮(zhèn)靜藥物的使用,,允許患兒更好地表達(dá)疼痛,從而優(yōu)化疼痛的控制,,減少鎮(zhèn)靜相關(guān)的醫(yī)源性譫妄的出現(xiàn)[72],。家庭成員的參與能夠減少患兒和家長的焦慮,提高家屬的滿意度[73],。 成人ICU譫妄的臨床實踐模型中相對成熟的有早期鎮(zhèn)痛,,最小化鎮(zhèn)靜以及最大人文關(guān)懷以保證患者舒適度[74](early comfort using analgesia,minimal sedatives and maximal humanecare,,eCASH)模式以及ABCDEF集束化策略[75](Assessing Pain,,Both Spontaneous Awaken-ing and Breathing Trials,,Choice of Drugs,Delirium Monitoring/Management,,Early Exercise/Mobility,,and Family Empowerment bundle)。ABCDEF集束化策略中每個元素都是基于單獨應(yīng)用時能夠保證患者安全,,以患者為中心,,在成人研究領(lǐng)域,ABCDEF集束化策略在呼吸機(jī)天數(shù),、ICU住院時間,、住院時間、非譫妄天數(shù)和住院病死率在內(nèi)的幾個領(lǐng)域都取得了較好的結(jié)果[76],,隨著時間的進(jìn)展,,譫妄的發(fā)生率也逐漸減少[77],但其實際應(yīng)用率很低,,在一項涉及47個國家的全球調(diào)查中,,只有57%的人實施了ABCDEF集束化策略[78]。一項在梅奧醫(yī)學(xué)兒科ICU網(wǎng)站上的報告顯示,,集束化策略用于兒科患者時,,在減少機(jī)械通氣時間、ICU住院日以及功能狀態(tài)量表評分中均有改善[79],。一些指南確定了ICU中以家庭為中心的護(hù)理最佳實踐的證據(jù)基礎(chǔ),,但其中推薦意見證據(jù)不夠充分[80]。 5 小結(jié) 譫妄的發(fā)生對于患兒自主神經(jīng)系統(tǒng),、內(nèi)分泌系統(tǒng)的穩(wěn)定甚至原發(fā)疾病的恢復(fù)都是不利的,,其他可能導(dǎo)致的不良事件包括非計劃拔管、墜床的危險,、住院時間延長,、提高院內(nèi)6個月病死率以及過多的醫(yī)療費用[3,24,35,51,81,82]。有研究報道譫妄可導(dǎo)致成人患者伴隨長期的神經(jīng)認(rèn)知損害[35],,這種危害在兒童中尤其令人擔(dān)憂,,對于兒童來講,他們不僅需要康復(fù),,還需要成長和發(fā)育[83],。 兒童譫妄最佳的防治手段則是早發(fā)現(xiàn),早預(yù)防,,避免可改變的危險因素,。兒科ICU患兒進(jìn)行普遍篩查對于早期發(fā)現(xiàn)譫妄是可行且必要的,這種篩查能夠針對性地識別高風(fēng)險人群,從而進(jìn)行非藥物性干預(yù),,干預(yù)手段可以借鑒成人ABCDEF集束化臨床策略,,但干預(yù)措施的安全性需要在兒科人群中應(yīng)用并得到驗證。發(fā)病早,、恢復(fù)快的兒童,,極有可能與鎮(zhèn)靜藥物誘導(dǎo)的譫妄有關(guān),值得注意的是,,有一部分(31%)兒童有持續(xù)性譫妄的存在,,其中可能有45%的譫妄患兒在神志不清的狀態(tài)下被轉(zhuǎn)出兒童心胸外監(jiān)護(hù)室[24],這一研究結(jié)果提示從ICU轉(zhuǎn)出甚至出院回家的患兒需要進(jìn)一步關(guān)注,,以確定兒童譫妄的持續(xù)時間,、解決時機(jī)以及長期影響。 兒科ICU醫(yī)護(hù)人員對于兒童譫妄的有效識別是采取預(yù)防措施的基本前提,,在兒科ICU安全有效能夠減少譫妄發(fā)生的臨床實踐策略仍需進(jìn)一步研究和探索,,有必要進(jìn)行進(jìn)一步的研究以確定譫妄對兒童長期認(rèn)知和心理的影響,進(jìn)行干預(yù)性研究,,從而建立兒童譫妄預(yù)防與治療的最佳實踐,。 利益沖突 利益沖突 所有作者均聲明不存在利益沖突 參考文獻(xiàn) [1] Van TuijlSG,Van CauterenYJ,,PikhardT,,et al.Management of pediatric delirium in critical illness:a practical update[J].Minerva Anestesiol,2015,,81(3):333-341. 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